tat tvam asi

Introduction

Vedanta means “the end of the Vedas” – “anta” = end. The central topic is the Universal Spirit (Brahman) – so it is also referred to by the names Brahmasutra and Bhramnamimamsa. The central them is the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads concerning the nature and relationship of the three princinples – God, world & soul.

It is an effort to balance all knowledge – and contends that we have no right to disregard the findings of any seer; we are morally bound to examine the teachings of all minds that have attained enlightenment and find what is common – for that is likely to be the Ultimate Truth. Differences are due to various viewpoints, different stages of development and training, as well as social and hereditary backgrounds; therefore, the same Truth will vary according to the capacity of each individual for insight.

Vedanta accepts every though, idea and concept as a step forward. It evades nothing, and encompasses everything; it discards nothing and collects everything that is within the realm of human experience. However it does not accept anything as final, dogmatic, or as the last word; instead it investigates, analyzes and criticizes all alike, forcing every proposition to verify and substantiate itself according to the rules of logical inquiry.

Vedanta maintains that the human intellect can never fathom the nature of the Ultimate principle – it can only be known by direct intuition never logical inquiry and analysis. The laws of logical inquiry are only to be used for removing apparent contradictions in the Upanishads but never to reveal the Ultimate. Reasoning can only be used with certainty in secular matters to remove doubt, never for transcendental matters .

Never can there be certainty, doubt always remains. Study of the Vedanta can remove these doubts. The teachings are said to fortify the mind with the necessary arguments and reasons so strengthen our position until we grow firm in our understanding. To do this we are required to pass through a discipline which consists of:

1. Viveka – right discrimination between the eternal and non-eternal, the real and the unreal. This comes from proper study.
2. Vairagya – right dispassion and indifference to the unreal and transitory. This consists of renunciation of all desires to enjoy the fruit of action both here and hereafter.
3. Satsampat – right conduct which consists of:  control of thought, control of conduct, renunciation of all sectarian religious observances, endurance of opposites, faith & balanced mental equipoise (freedom from too much sleep, laziness and carelessness).
4. Mumuksutva – right desire – earnestness to know the Ultimate Principle. This will come when one dedicates his life to this single goal.

Philosophy

The principal question raised by Vedanta is “What is the cause of the Primal Motion in Nature?” – it pushes the cosmological inquiry one step further then the other systems. It postulates an Intelligent Agent the guides and directs the workings of the subtle forces of the universe – it is called Brahman. It is translated in the west as God when placed in the context of religious worship, but it is advisable to use the term Brahman or Ultimate Principle until the concept is firmly rooted.

Vedanta indicates two problems with the Samkhya system:

1. How is the process of evolution started?
2. How do we account for the phenomenon of Pralaya (annihilation of the world at the end of each cycle).

The Vaisesika system taught that the original impulse was caused by the Adrsta (unseen, invisible, unknown) of the soul. For example: when we indulge in some particular form of pleasurable activity, there remains within us a latent desire to repeat that form of action another time; as soon as the environment provides an opportunity, we shall repeat that form of action. There are some forms of this latent energy that remain latent for a long period of time before manifestation (as some seeds must remain latent for several years before they are ready to germinate).

Vaisesika says the primal motion originate in the anu when it comes into proximity with the soul. Vedanta contends this is not reasonable since both any and the soul are, by definition, without parts; and there can be no contact between things having no parts. During Pralaya the souls are dormant, so they cannot originate motion; therefore there could never be a first beginnig.

Vedanta accepts the of cosmic evolution as outlined in the Samkhya and explained in the Vaisesika. These systems were presenting an interpretation of nature for minds who were not interested in inquiring into the nature of the first cause. The outstanding contribution of the Vedanta system is Brahman – that which causes the initial impulse in nature.

Brahman

The Ultimate Principle (Brahman) is the creator, maintainer and destroyer of everything in the universe. It is the instrument and material cause of all manifest phenomena. It has two conditions:

• Pralaya: Asat (Non being) the universe it is at rest. This is the subtle condition of nature when the infinite energy of forms have become submerged into the eternal source from which they came. This is a time of universal dissolution, re-absorption, destruction, annihilation of all manifest phenomena.
• Sat-Cit-Ananda: the universe  is active. In this period it has three attributes: universal being, consciousness & bliss. It has two inseparable forms: Nirguna – pure spirit, Saguna – pure matter (these refer to the Gunas explained in Samkhya).

At no time is it ever non-existent.

Atman

The term Atman is frequently used in Vedanta – it is translated as “Soul of Self”. It is identified with Purusa (Pure Spirit) and is the instrumental cause of the manifest world. It is also known as Cit – in the sense that it is Universal Consciousness, in contrast with Acit – universal matter which is “without consciousness”.  When a part of the Universal Consciousness settles in Universal Matter which it animates – it is called Jiva – personal soul. Therefore, the only difference between man and God is only one of degree, for ultimately they are one in the same way that the space inside a cup is the same as the space outside. Man is a spark of the infinite.

Maya

“Maya” = delusion. It is the dividing force in nature which measures out the immeasurable and creates forms in the formless. It has two functions – to conceal the real and to project the unreal. It pervades the universe, but it’s presence is only inferred from its effect.

When nature is in a state of equilibrium, Universal Matter is called Prakrti; but the first disturbance, the first conceived motion away from that original equipoise is called Maya, because there has been no change in substance, but only in form – therefore, it is an illusion. When the universal force called Maya operates in the mind of an individual it is called Avidya (ignorance), especially in the spiritual sense. It is the subjective aspect while Maya is the objective aspect. It is called Avidya (without knowledge), because knowledge will dissipate all the illusions of perception.

“man” = to think, consider, examine or investigate = “desire to think”. Mimamsa is divided into two systems:

1. Purvamimamsa  (“purva” = earlier ~ the earlier part of the Vedas)  – an interpretation of the actions leading to freedom of the soul. Also called Karma Mimamsa.
2. Uttarmimamsa (“uttara” = later ~ the later part of the Vedas)  – an interpretation of the knowledge leading to freedom of the soul. Also called Jnana Mimamsa.

The basic premise of Mimamsa is that action is the very essence of human existence. Without action knowledge is fruitless, happiness is impossible and human destiny cannot be fulfilled. The purpose of Mimamsa is to inquire into the nature of Right Action (Dharma).

All actions are said to have two effects – external and internal. The external is gross, manifest and transitory. The internal is subtle and eternal. Actions are the vehicles for planting the seeds of life to come (aside: the word seed caused me to wonder if this relates to the idea of Vasana). In this light Mimamsa examines all the actions mentioned in the Vedas and offers a general summary of rules for the interpretation of Vedic texts.

Mimamsa accepts the philosophical concept of the other systems and does not enter any philosophical analysis of the nature of Reality, Soul & Matter or their relationships to one another. The sole concern of Mimamsa is salvation, not liberation. It argues that salvation cannot be achieved by knowledge alone, for the soul must first exhaust its potentialities through action (no amount of contemplation will enable man to arrive at the ultimate goal of human destiny). All arguments are based on the premises that the soul by definition must survive this earthly manifestation.

Mimamsa has a strong effect on the daily life of Hindu’s. All rituals and ceremonies depend on it, all moral conduct is guided by it; all Hindu law is founded upon it.

Mimamsa defined Dharma  as “an object distinguished by a command”. “dhar” = to hold, maintain, preserve. When used in the metaphysical sense, it means those universal laws of Nature that sustain the operation of the universe and the manifestation of all things, that without which nothing could be. When applied to the individual, it has reference to that code of conduct that sustains the soul and enables man to fulfill his divine destiny.

All rituals and ceremonies in the Vedas are said to lead to the enlightenment of the mind and the spiritual evolution of the soul.  On the surface they appear to be fruitless injunctions; therefore Mimamsa endeavors to show how they are all based on dharma and lead to the spiritual welfare of man.

Mimamsa claims that knowledge of dharma can only be attained by Verbal Testimony (Sabda) – every word has in an inherent power to convey its eternal meaning and teaching. There are a few refutes offered to the challenges made against this claim for example:

• Claim: the word is a product of utterance therefore not eternal. Refute: the word must have  existed previously otherwise it could not have been pronounced.
• Claim: the word vanished after its pronounced. Refute: only the sound disappears, the word remains.
• Claim: the word can be modified. Refute: changes of letters are not modifications, they are new words.

Mimamsa classifies the Vedas under five categories:

1. Vidhi – Injunctions (do’s)
2. Mantras –  Hymns – texts which help to remember the procedures of rituals.
3. Namadheya – Names – which define matter.
4. Nisedha – Prohibitions (dont’s) that protect a man from doing things which may be injurious or disadvantageous to him.
5. Arthavada – Explanations – which praise Vidhi’s and blame Nisedha’s.

Mimamsa can be understood from the way it defends objections that are raised against Vedic mantras. For example:

1. Objection: Vedic mantras do not convey meanings because they stand in need of other passages to explain and support them. Defense: All Vedic words have significance just as they do in ordinary language.
2. Objection: Vedic mantras are held useless because they describe what does not exist. For example “It has four horns, it has three feet, two heads, it has seven hands; the bull being tied threefold, cries: the great god entered amongst the mortals”. Defense: this is figurative speech that use symbols.
3. Objection: Vedic mantras are held to be useless because they are learned without understanding their meaning. Defense: this is no fault of the Veda which deals only with the performance of sacrifices. It is assumed that meaning will be learned.
4. Objection: Vedic mantras are held to be useless because there are many mantras the meaning of which cannot be known. Defense: every mantra has a meaning. Our ignorance is due to careless and indolence.

(Further details are provided on the Mimamsa approach to the Vedas – I chose to stop at this point).

Gunas

In the universal condition of nature, the Cosmic Substance (Prakrti) is postulated to account for the objective side of existence; it is the potential phase of nature without which all things come. It consists of three constituents called Gunas: Sattva, Rajas & Tamas. In the individual manifestation of nature they are the psychological basis of all things:

• Sattva – illuminates and accounts for qualities such as joy, enlightenment, faith, forgiveness, courage, concentration, modesty, indifference, detachment and compassion.
• Rajas –  activates (moves Sattva to suppress Tamas, and Tamas to suppress Sattva) and account for qualities such as argumentation, opinion, attachment, jealousy, selfishness, desire to afflict, suspicion and all cravings of the senses.
• Tamas – obscures and restrains, veils consciousness and obstructs action. It accounts for qualities such as carelessness, delusion, ignorance, laziness, pride and deluded conviction.

The individual proceeds from the universal condition of Spirit and Matter – therefor man consists of a subtle aspect and a gross aspect. the subtle body is the invisible vehicle of the soul, it is constant and does not change through the cycles of life and death; however it is not eternal, for it is eventually reabsorbed into the elements of which it is composed. The gross aspect is the material and perishable body – destroyed at death and another formed at birth. It consists of the 5 gross elements (ether, air, fire, water & earth). All this is the sum and substance of mind.

Mind

(watch for “Mind” and “mind” – they are different entities in Sanskrit but share the same English spelling)

Patanjali uses the term Citta (“cit” = to perceive, comprehend, know) to describe what may be called Mind – and refers to the entire knowing faculty. It is the first manifestation in the world of name and form. It si defined as the organized totality of conscious experience; it consists of all the activities of an organism by means of which it responds as an integrated, dynamic system to external forces, usually in some relation to its own past and future. It’s distinguishing feature is awareness. It has the capacity to know and influence its environment (consciously and unconsciously). For the purpose of understanding Mind is divided into three: intelligence (buddhi), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas) – each with its respective functions. However they are a single functioning unit and not separate parts.

• Buddhi (“budh” = to wake up, recover consciousness, observe)  accounts for the capacity of illumination, abstraction, determination, certainty. It is the seat of virtue, non-attachment and wisdom. When the mind (Manas, see below)  is registering the objects of thought, it is the intelligence (Buddhi) that discriminates, determines and recognizes. In contemplation, the mind (Manas) raises objects of thought, and the intelligence (Buddhi) dwells upon them.
• Ahamkara is ego – it is the vast reservoir of instinctive impulses dominated by pleasure and pain. It is the individuating and arrogating principle, the storehouse of all experiences. It is the first manifestation of individual consciousness, personal position, individual identity. It rationalized nothing, but is satisfied with things as they are. It’s function is the testing of reality, accepting or rejecting the demands of wishes made by impulses emanating from the individual organism.
• Manas is mind – the group of cognitive processes that have the capacity of discovering relationships and performing mental processes. It is the seat of responsible conscious activity. It accounts for the process of rationalization. It is the seat of desire and functions in association with the knowing senses and working senses. It can perceive but cannot conceive and is continually vacillating between objects.

In relation to the external world, the mind (manas) perceives and presents, the ego (ahamkara) arrogates; and the intelligence (buddhi) discriminates, decides and resolves, after which action arises. These three aspects constitute the Mind (Citta) as a whole.

Abstract Sense Powers (Indriyas )

The knowing senses (Jnanendriyas) are the powers to hear, feel, see, taste & smell. They function respectively through the organs of ears, skin, eyes, tongue & nose.

The working senses are the powers to express (working of ideas, not just production of sound) , procreate (recreation and passive enjoyment, not just the physical act), excrete (general processes of rejection, not just elimination) , grasp (permeating thing, not just handling objects) and move (mentally not just physically). Their physical organs are respectively voice, sex organs, anus, hands and feet.

Existence is tying experiences together into an endless chain; life is the force that holds them.

Tanmatras (5 Subtle Elements)

These are the manifestations of sounds, touch, form, flavor & odor. They are the subtle body – not yet massive.

Bhutas (5 Gross Elements)

These are the last stage of manifestation – the appearance of gross elements: ether, air, fire water & earth. They are the result of the aggregation of the subtle elements. Each gross elements evolves out of the one preceding it. They are transformed states of original nature characterized by the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas & Tamas.

The term Yoga comes from the root “yuj” = to yoke or join. The philosophical basis of Yoga is the Samkhya.  The ancient teachers extended Samkhya laws that govern the evolution of the universe to cover the evolution of the individual, showing that the individual is but a microcosm of the macrocosm.

Yoga techniques and teaching have been accumulated through a ceaseless stream of adepts, self-fulfilled personalities, who have handed it down from generation to generation through a group of devoted followers. Patanjali is credited with having given us the present literary form of Yoga in his treatise – the Yogasutra.

The paramount aim of Yoga is to free man forever from three sorts of pain: pain that arises from his own infirmities and wrong conducts; pain that arises from his relations with other leaving things; pain arising from his relations with external nature. This is accomplished by first achieving non-attachment, then by gaining restraint over the mind and its creations and finally attaining positive and absolute union of the individual soul and universal soul – this condition is known as Samadhi and is the true purpose of Yoga.

The Yogi views nature as a single force working in two directions. From the outside, it struggles to separate; from the inside it struggles to reunite. The inner force is called Life; the outer force is called Death. The purpose of Yoga is to unite these two.

Yoga assumes that the individual is part and parcel of the universal substance, but so involved in the matter of Time and Space as to have lost all recognition of his or her true reality. Yogi’s hold that all in the manifest and unmanifest world comes from one source, the divine and primordial intelligence; that man is but a spark of this intelligence and, by the process of Yoga is able to get a glimpse of it.

The best proof of the practical nature of Yoga and the extent of its influence is the fact that every system of religion in India and every school of philosophy has recognized Yoga as the most scientific means of realizing philosophical truths. The systematic study of Yoga has now been stopped for hundreds of years, having gone into a state of decay on account of idleness, ignorance, and the unscrupulous of the generality of its latter-day followers. Yoga was compelled to retire to secret abodes, until in this day only mere remnants of its are available to the average seeker. Even in India, home of Yoga, supreme ignorance prevails about Yoga in general, and especially is this so in educated circles.

Yoga assumes the same cosmological doctrines as set forth in the Samkhya system. Both are based on the fundamental logical premise that something cannot come out of nothing. Therefor Yoga maintains that the gross individual must have a subtle aspect from which it manifests itself and to which it will return. This subtle aspect is but a spark of the divine and is the sole concern of Yoga. He is constituted of both the gross and the subtle. The gross can be known by perception, but the subtle can be known only by the power of spiritual perception. The subtle aspect consists of the abstract energies of his nature, they are always invisible, for they are beyond the mind, beyond the senses, never to be seen, but to be known only through the practice of Yoga.

The Yoga system is based upon the principle that there si but one law that governs a single force which operates in all conditions of nature, manifest and unmanifest. That force is called Life.  Life is not the creation of something new, it is only an expansion of what is. Death takes away the manifest individual, but the continuance of life is not affected. We see only the middle link in the chain of individual existence and call it life; we utterly fail to take notice of the preceding and succeeding invisible stages.

Man is a combination of self-conscious self and five kinds of matter formed into an organic body. The soul is spiritually present as one’s voice is present throughout the room. It has no inside or outside, but is only a mass of intelligence, just as a mass of sweetness has no inside or outside, but is simply a mass of taste.  The manifestation of an individual is the reduction of the universal force to an individual principle caused by a stress raised in the universal consciousness. This stress is caused by the dynamic energy of the individual’s past actions (karma). As the individual consciousness begins to manifest, it takes on forms and becomes a thinking, speaking and experiencing entity. The more compact and condensed this conscious energy becomes, the more power if manifests.

Jiva (“jiv” = to live) is the individual spirit (as distinguished from the universal soul – Purusa). It is the spark of life, the animating principle, the feeling of persistency experienced by every individual. It is that which produces the feeling of being. It can never be seen, no more then the center of gravity can be seen.

evolvent = that which is produced and produces.
evolute = that which is produced and does not produce.

Cosmic Intelligence (Mahat)

Cosmic Intelligence (The “Great Principle”) is the capacity to expand, reveal and ascertain (here there is no ideation, relationship or identity). It is the first appearance of the universe, the order that fulfills the ultimate destiny of nature. It is cosmic evolution, will,or urge to satisfy a want that has been created by a disturbance of the perfect balance of nature.  It is classified as an evolvent.

Individuating Principle (Ahamkara)

“aham” = I, “kr” = to do/make/perform. It is responsible for the limitations, separation and variety that come out of harmony. It is the state of active consciousness in which the illuminating aspect “I” identifies itself with the total “this” – it forms the dualistic state of as yet un-manifest universe. It is a state of self-realization in the presence of the universal will that precedes any action. It too is classified as an evolvent.

Cosmic Mind (Manas)

“man” = to think. The principle of cognition. It is an evolute – it does not produce new forms of being (as opposed to Cosmic Intelligence which does).

Cosmic Intelligence, Individuating Principle & Cosmic Mind are not separated in time – they arise simultaneously. They are together the outcome of the unbalance of the 3 Gunas. They are discussed separately only for the purpose of understanding.

Abstract Sense Powers (Indriyas)

These are ten principles :

• 5 Abstract Knowing Senses (Jnanendriyas – powers of cognition):  Hear, Feel, See, Taste, Smell.
• 5 Working Senses (Karmendriyas – capacities for action): Express, Procreate, excrete, grasp, move.

All 10 arise simultaneously with Mind (Manas) and are classified as evolutes (do no produce new modes of being). They have no real existence without objects – eg. the power to hear could have no meaning without sound.  The moment these abstract sense powers manifest themselves, their correlated subtle elements come into being.

(Comment: there seems to be a correlation between the Indriyas and primary Nadi).

Subtle Elements ( Tanmatras)

“tad” = that, “matra” = an element/elementary matter. Translated as “That-ness”. These are the subtle elements of the sense powers: sound, touch, form, flavor and odor. They are the first conceivable division of matter, the subtlest form of actual matter, without magnitude and perceived only through particular mediating objects. They are evolvents – from them the universe comes forth, continues and finally disappears.

When there is a further restraining aspect of the Tamas Guna, the subtle elements produce an accretion of mass which forms the Sense-Particulars.

Sense-Particulars (Mahabhutas)

“bhu” = tu be, to come into being, to exist. These are the five differentiable forms of Cosmic Substance:

• Ether – Akasa (“kas” = to appear) is the principle of vacuity. It has the special property of sound.
• Air – Vayu (“va” = blow) is the principle of motion – it’s function is pressure or impact. It has the special property of touch and general quality of sound.
• Fire – Tejas (“tij” = to be sharp) is the principle of luminosity – it’s function is expansion. It has the special property of form and general quality of touch and sound.
• Water – Apas (“ap” = water) is the principle of liquidity – it’s function is contraction. It has the special property of flavor and general quality of form, touch and sound.
• Earth – Prthivi is the principle of solidarity – it’s function is cohesion. It has the special property of odor and general quality of flavor, for, touch and sound.

Each Sense-Particular is conditioned and evolved from the one proceeding it. It has a distinguishing special property in addition to the general qualities it inherits from the others from which it is evolved:

• Ether – sound
• Air – sound & touch
• Fire – sound & touch & form
• Water – sound & touch & form & flavor
• Earth – sound & touch & form & flavor & odor

With the manifestation of the Sense-Particulars the process of cosmic evolution comes to rest – therefore these are classified as evolutes (they are produced but do not produce). All manifestation in the phenomenal world are said to be modifications of these principles and not the creation of anything new.

Cosmic Spirit (Purusa)

This is the animating principle of nature, that which breathes life into matter; the source of consciousness. It is the ultimate principle of intelligence that regulates, guides and directs the process of cosmic evolution. It accounts for the intelligent order of things – why there is a cosmos and not chaos. It is a background that gives us the feeling of persistence. It is the silent witness of nature.

Cosmic Matter (Prakrti)

Prakrti:  “pra” = before/first, “kr” = make/produce. Cosmic Matter is that which existed before anything was produced.  The primary source of all things, the original substance out of which all things have come and into which all things will eventually return.

The central argument used by the Samkhya system is that something cannot come out of nothing. Therefore the  material universe is traced back to a first cause – this is Cosmic Matter – it is merely a logical assumption for the sake of analysis. It is beyond the mind and can never be perceived by the mind (no more then a surgeon can see the soul). It can be understood through reason but can only be known through the practice of Yoga. Cosmic Matter evolves in a chain of cause & effect.

Cause & effect are only different states of the same thing separated by time (there is only a change of form, never of substance). The cause is un-evolved and the effect is evolved. Both are real. Nothing is new is created, all is a manifestation of what has already existed. According to Samkhya the eternal process of nature is without beginning or end.

The Gunas

Cosmic Substance consists of 3 constituents/powers called Gunas which explain the diversified objects of existence (the term means a single thread/strand of a chord): Sattva, Rajas & Tamas.

• Sattva Guna is derived from “sat” = that which is real or existent. It is that power of nature that illuminates and reveals all manifestations. It is devoid of excitement and is the cause of equilibrium. It has no motion of its own and therefore incapable of action or reactions. It manifests itself as light.
• Rajas Guna is derived from “ranj” – to be colored/affected/moved. It is the activating and exciting potency without which the other two constituents (Sattva, Tamas) could not manifest their inherent qualities. It’s function is to move things, overcome resistance, do work. I is responsible for all motion and change that goes on throughout nature.
• Tamas Guna means darkness. Is it the power of nature that restrains, obstructs and envelops the other two constituents by counteracting the tendency of Rajas to do work and Sattva to reveal.  It is the restraining and binding potency of nature, the downward pull of the earth, the cause of mass, weight and inertia. It makes it possible for us to feel invisible air.

The Gunas are the roof of all change, the foundation of reality, the essence of all things. They were in a state of perfect balance before the manifestation of the objective world. When this equilibrium is disturbed the phenomenal world begins to make its appearance. The initial stress (that disturbed the equilibrium) in nature is the result of past action (karma).  In the process of nature they co-exist in everything, but one may predominate. They remain potentially ready to emerge as distinct aspects when the conditions for the next manifestations arise. Never are they non-existent nor is their power diminished or altered in any way.

Spirit (Purusa) and Cosmic Substance (Prakrti) are two aspects of a single thing. They are separated only for the purpose of analysis and because they do not have any separate existence. The formless Spirit cannot act by itself because it has no vehicle.  The Cosmic Substance can have no urge to action because it is inanimate. Through their union existence can manifest. Both are eternal realities, un-manifest, without beginning or end, all pervading and omnipotent.

Samkhya is the oldest school of Hindu philosophy (placed around 6th century B.C.) and the first attempt to harmonize the philosophy of the Veda’s through reason. It it based on scientific principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy.

It’s purpose is to provide knowledge which will forever remove the cause of misery and thereby release the soul from its bondage. It indicates three kinds of misery:  from intrinsic causes (such as disorders of the body & mind), extrinsic causes (such as other men or inanimate objects) and supernatural causes (such as the atmosphere or planets). The misery of the soul is said to be caused by its intimate association with the body. Bondage (of the soul to the body) is claimed to be purely an illusion caused by incorrect knowledge of the true nature of things. Therefore it is believed that discriminate knowledge will forever release the soul from all misery.

Samkhya deals exclusively with the empirical world which is governed by the rules of reason and can be known. It leaves the more transcendental speculations to other systems, maintaining that questions pertaining to the beginning of things are not conductive to enlightenment.

The phenomenal order of the universe is considered as a dynamic order, an eternal process of unfolding, without beginning or end. All has evolved from an Uncaused Cause – a postulated  absolute beginning which cannot be conceived by the intellect.

Samkhya postulates two ultimate realities (logical principles) – Spirit (Purusa) and Matter (Prakrti) to account for all experience.  A fundamental tenet of Samkhya is that creation is impossible, for something cannot come out of nothing. Change implies something to change; whatever is, always is, and whatever is not, never is.

Samkhya divides cosmic evolution into 25 categories grouped into four:

1. Cosmic Spirit (Purusa) – that which is neither produced nor produces.
2. Cosmic Substance (Prakrti) – that which is not produced but produces.
3. 7 Evolvents – those which are produced and do produce.
4. 16 Evolutes – those which are produced and do not produce.